As musicians, we spend countless hours in the practice rooms on our own, thinking about what we learned from our lessons and coachings. Do you know what types of comments and feedback work best for you? Have you thought about how to optimize your lesson and coaching time, and what happens afterwards?
Have you thought of how to break down all your movements when you learn a new work?
Music can be considered as a sequence of smaller discrete and continuous simple skills that create larger complex skills (see Drake & Palmer, 2002), and one unique thing about music vs. sports is that the complex skills can be extremely long (e.g., performing the first movement of a concerto). Therefore, it is important to be able to understand how motor skill learning works and how to learn efficiently in such a physically demanding field.
Your brain on feedback
From a motor learning perspective, feedback provides insight on “the parameterization of action representation” (Han et al., 2022, p. 1). Feedback can come from internal sources (e.g., how the string feels under your fingers), or external sources (e.g., watching yourself in the mirror, speech from teacher). These allow the learner to develop motor competence, which is a mastery of motor skills that is relatively permanent (Han et al., 2022).
Do you know what happens in your brain when you learn?
To better understand how feedback is processed, let’s look at what happens in the brain! Information goes through different areas for processing and consolidation so that what you learn is safely stored and ready to be brought out for your next performance or practice session. The key parts at play would be the visual cortex, primary sensory cortex, the somatosensory system, presupplementary cortex, and also the cerebellum (“involved in learning skillful limb movements”) (Blumenfeld, 2010; Rosenbaum, 2009, p. 65). The presupplementary cortex, which lies right in front of the supplementary cortex, plays the key role of a teacher in the early stages of learning a new skill (Watson, 2009). The basal ganglia, located deep in the middle of the brain, helps with coordinating movement and the cerebellum (“hindbrain”), located in the lower part at the back of the brain, continually monitors and adjusts movements based on the planned action in communication with the primary motor cortex (Watson, 2009).
While there are many complex pathways, different types of feedback rely on different processing areas. There are two main pathways that we can identify between the types addresssed below: one that relies more elements within the body and one that relies more on elements outside of the body. By understanding what cortices interact with each other, this can help us better discriminate between the three types of feedback discussed below.
Types of feedback
Have you considered your mentors’ comments and what mental processes they rely on?
Table 1. Types of feedback.
| Type | Examples | Description | Anatomy |
| Internal intrinsic | “How does it feel on your fingers?” “How does your back feel?” | Internal intrinsic feedback involves tactile and proprioceptive input; in other words, this relies on what you feel through touch and being aware of your body sensations (Leukel & Lundbye-Jensen, 2012). | Proprioception is the information on muscle contraction, tension of tendons, and joint angles, all received by a type of sensory neurons called proprioceptors; this all lies within the central nervous system and interacts with the primary sensory cortex and the sensory association cortex (Watson, 2009). |
| Internal extrinsic | “Am I hearing a warm sound?” “Am I slouching when I play?” | Internal extrinsic feedback relies on visual and auditory inputs; in other words, what you see and what you hear (Leukel & Lundbye-Jensen, 2012). | This type of feedback is mediated by a variety of areas including the auditory cortex, visual cortex, and sensory association cortex, which then goes to the primary motor cortex (Watson, 2009). |
| Extrinsic/augmented | “You got to the tip of the bow on this down bow (KR) by opening your elbow joint and allowing your wrist to bend (KP).” | Extrinsic/augmented feedback is any feedback that is given by someone else, and any visual feedback. It consists of two components. “Knowledge of Result (KR) is information given to the learner after completion of a movement, which describes the outcome of the movement in terms of the movement goal. Knowledge of Performance (KP) is information that describes the quality of the movement pattern that led to the performance outcome. KP differs from KR in terms of what aspects of performance the information refers to” (Leukel & Lundbye-Jensen, 2012, p. 137). | This type of feedback is mediated by a variety of areas including the auditory cortex, visual cortex, and sensory association cortex, which then goes to the primary motor cortex (Watson, 2009). |
Other factors to consider
The organization and frequency of feedback is also important to consider. Both blocked and serial feedback schedules appear in lessons. In the early stages of learning a new technique, my teacher would tell me to focus on one thing with more frequent comments, for example, drop the bow so that it naturally bounces on the string in this passage. Eventually, once I become more proficient with the technique, my teacher would address multiple aspects after performing a longer skill, for example, “make sure you stay close to the string, have strong left-hand articulation, and support your viola by holding it up!” This shows the progression of using blocked feedback in new technique or skill learning, and then employing the random feedback model once the skill is developed.
Feedback can be given in two ways: blocked (only addresses one aspect of the motor skill) or random/serial (addresses multiple aspects of the motor skill) (Wulf & Shea, 2002). Both blocked and random feedback schedules are advantageous. Blocked feedback was shown to be effective for learning complex skills (Wulf & Shea, 2002). Random feedback was more effective for experienced learners (Wulf & Shea, 2002). In music performance training, both blocked and random feedback organizations are important. Blocked feedback would be useful when learning a new technique or skill, so that you are able to focus on one thing at a time. As you gain more experience with said technique or skill, the random feedback schedule will allow for a more holistic view on the task, as different aspects will be addressed rather than one aspect.
Studies have shown the frequency of feedback affects learning and retention of motor skills. When learning a new complex skill, more frequent feedback on each trial is needed (Wulf & Shea, 2002). This would be applicable when learning a new movement (e.g., bow stroke, virtuosic passage) and when working with younger students. Postresponse feedback is given after performing a motor task rather than during, and it has been shown to be more beneficial than concurrent feedback (feedback given during the execution of the motor task) (Wulf & Shea, 2002). Concurrent feedback hinders the retention and transfer performance conditions (Wulf & Shea, 2002). In your performance, you will not be receiving concurrent feedback; it’s like if your teacher was yelling from the back of the hall, “MORE BOW! MORE VIBRATO!” during your recital…
Feedback: use it wisely!
Your teachers’, coaches’, peers’ comments would be categorized as augmented feedback. Each person would have a different perspective and can provide valuable insight. Feedback is shown to “guid[e] the learner to the correct response” (Wulf & Shea, 2002, p. 6). Additionally, feedback “developed a more effective error-detection-and-correction mechanism […] which enabled them to demonstrate further performance improvements even in the absence of feedback” (Wulf & Shea, 2002, p. 8).
Augmented feedback is extremely helpful in learning the correct motor movements, but, did you know that you could develop a dependency on augmented feedback? One caveat that augmented feedback presents is the guidance hypothesis: some types of feedback may hinder performance in retention and transfer conditions (Wulf & Shea, 2002). Learners develop a dependency on augmented feedback and begin to neglect internal intrinsic feedback, which poses challenges when augmented feedback is not available in performance contexts (Wulf & Shea, 2002). Furthermore, when feedback is given too frequently, it steers the learners away from stable representations of the motor skill, thus leading to more variable and less replicable performances (Wulf & Shea, 2002). It can also inhibit the ability to recall the motor task from memory (Wulf & Shea, 2002). Our mentors are instrumental (no pun intended) in our development as musicians, but they are not able to remind us to use more bow during our exams! We have to be able to learn and internalize this on our own when practising so that we retain this skill.
As a teacher, how can I encourage independence in my students? Before giving feedback, teachers can ask students to reflect and describe their own intrinsic feedback (“What did you hear? What did you feel?”) they processed when performing the task. This also fosters explicit and implicit learning processes, which we will learn about in the next section. Furthermore, teachers can avoid the guidance hypothesis by providing feedback that can encourage and foster internal intrinsic feedback. For example, you got to the tip of the bow on this down bow (KR) by opening your elbow joint and allowing your wrist to bend (KP). This way, this augmented feedback draws upon the body mechanics and the next time the student plays, they can be aware of the body parts at play and the sensation (proprioception).
Explicit vs. implicit learning
The three types of feedback also tie in to the two learning models: explicit and implicit. Do you know you what these are and which type helps you learn better?
Explicit learning and internal focus
Having explicit knowledge is helpful in the early stages of learning a new skill (Wulf & Shea, 2002). Since explicit learning relies on proprioception (internal intrinsic feedback, combined with augmented feedback), this can help cultivate body awareness for musicians which is useful both on and off stage. On the other hand, when practising, it is difficult to allocate attentional and cognitive load to spend on focusing on specific body mechanics (Wulf & Shea, 2002). When beginning to learn a new piece or tackling a tricky passage with complex body choreography, the ability to describe the movements and connect with the body help with replicating the correct movements each time through heightened body awareness.
Table 2. Definitions and examples of explicit learning.
| Explicit learning | Internal focus | |
| Example | “Can you describe the body motions and sensations when you play forte in this lyrical passage?” | “Engage your fingers so that you can catch the string each time for this short, accented stroke.” |
| Definition | Explicit knowledge is being able to describe the motor skill at hand and the techniques and movements (Kal et al., 2018). Explicit learning is the learning process which uses explicit knowledge, and eventually the motor skill becomes automatized (Kal et al., 2018). | Explicit knowledge is achieved through the internal focus model, where individuals “focus on movement mechanics” (Kal et al., 2023, p. 4). |
Implicit learning and external focus
By focusing immediately on the final product, automatic processes are promoted; this means that when performing, we can draw on this already-developed automaticity. This can involve both internal intrisic and extrinsic feedback, combined with augmented feedback. Examples of implicit learning include teaching skills through analogies (Kal et al., 2018). One challenge teachers face when using analogies as a means to promote implicit learning is the individuality, creativity, and experience levels of students. For example, “this passage should sound like the bustling streets of New York City.” Some students may not have experienced or be familiar with what the teacher suggests as the analogy, or it may be too vague or indirect to understand. Using an analogy or asking the student to focus on the final product (e.g., communicating musical meaning) can help access the unconscious automatic process.
Table 3. Definitions and examples of implicit learning.
| Implicit learning | External focus | |
| Examples | “Focus on performing the motor skill (final product), you do not need to be able to verbally describe the mechanics of the motor skill.” | “Make your staccato sound like popcorn popping.” |
| Definition | Implicit knowledge relies on procedural knowledge whereby one does not need to be able to verbalize the motor skill (Kal et al., 2018). Implicit learning is the learning process that employs implicit learning, and this relies on automatic processes right from the get-go to focus on the final product, without using declarative knowledge or working memory (Kal et al., 2018). | The learning focus associated with implicit learning is external focus, where individuals “focus on movement outcome” (Kal et al., 2023, p. 4). This leverages the unconscious to process the motor skill (Wulf & Shea, 2002). |
Experienced learners (“experts” in the motor learning literature) may benefit more from external-focus feedback than internal-focus feedback (Wulf & Shea, 2002). That being said, experienced learners will probably go through both learning processes and develop the motor competences of the motor skill at hand.
Comparing explicit and implicit learning
Now having done some learning, can you identify what works best for you? Is it one or the other, or a combination of both depending on the context?
There is no significant advantage to either internal or external foci, so it comes down to what you prefer (Kal et al., 2023)!
Let it marinate!
Offline Consolidation
“Practice it, and give it some time to sink in.”
Have you ever practiced the same passage for hours on end in a day?
While your teachers and colleagues may suggest that you work on it until you can nail it, motor learning literature says otherwise. This might be shocking, but additional practice within the 12-hour period after practising the complex skill did not improve the performance of the motor skill (Lugassy et al., 2018). Leaving a motor task alone and letting your brain work on it, which is called offline consolidation, has been shown to be helpful in committing the motor task to long-term memory in a process called long-term potentiation (Colman, 2015a, 2015b). A study on offline consolidation in non-experienced participants performing a dental task showed that a 24-hour delay was most effective in consolidating the motor skill at hand (Lugassy et al., 2018). This means that it is actually beneficial to leave it and let it “marinate.” 12 hours was insufficient to benefit from offline consolidation (Lugassy et al., 2018). If you would like to read more about this study, click here.
Learning Strategies
Observational Learning
“Watch this video of Hilary Hahn performing Sibelius Violin Concerto.”
Imagine you are a violinist who is beginning to prepare the Sibelius Violin Concerto for a competition. Your friends and teachers have mentioned the demanding technical acrobatics and choreography required in this entire piece, but especially the third movement. Listening to recordings is a great way to mental practice (see Watson, 2009), but you really want to see what Sibelius is asking you to do in terms of violin gymnastics. Now, actually watching this video is a great aid to motor skill learning (28:45-30:02) to complement your practice: https://youtu.be/J0w0t4Qn6LY?si=LDdWslSF17ymxoZ_&t=1725
What you just experienced was observational learning! This is especially helpful when learning and developing complex skills – it reduces the physical demands involved, and allows for learners to start learning before all the physical skills are acquired (Wulf & Shea, 2002). Think of this as a head start! Because of reduced physical demands, that frees up the cognitive and attentional load, thus allowing for processing that would have been less effective when engaging in physical practice (Wulf & Shea, 2002). Starting with observational may even help with more accurate learning, before incorrect movements become consolidated and more powerful than the correct movements (Wulf & Shea, 2002).
Observational learning may even be enhanced through working in pairs (Wulf & Shea, 2002). We already see this in play: our studio classes and when we casually play for each other in the practice rooms.
While it is still effective, observational learning should be used earlier on and be a supplement to physical practice. In this type of learning, we lack physical engagement. This parallels mental practice. We do not have the tactile and proprioceptive inputs, and visual and auditory, i.e., internal intrinsic and extrinsic feedback, associated with playing an instrument, and it is not the same condition as the actual performance of the motor skill (Watson, 2009; Wulf & Shea, 2002).
Contextual Interference and Variability
“Plan your practice so that you cover a variety of material in a day.”
Contextual interference (CI) refers to the organization of practice of a motor skill; it could either be high (varying what you practice in one session, frequent alternating) or low (focusing on one thing for the entire session) (Wulf & Shea, 2002). Higher CI has been shown to invoke better retention (Carter & Grahn, 2016; Wulf & Shea, 2002). Carter and Grahn (2016) conducted a study consisting of ten clarinetists and explored blocked (low CI) and interleaved/random-order practice (high CI). Even in a controlled environment with prescribed schedules, they found overall that the musicians who used the interleaved schedule positively impacted goal setting, focus, and mistake identification, and scored better in the performance test (Carter & Grahn, 2016).
In a study where participants were asked to practice a speed-accuracy test in a variable condition (the targets that they were supposed to hit appeared in different places on the screen) showed greater ask transferability than those in the constant condition (all targets appeared in the same place) (Skurdyvas et al., 2020). This is similar to practicing shifts on a string instrument: by practicing technique exercises whereby you familiarize yourself with the many combinations possible, you are more at ease when transferring and applying this skill to repertoire. Another thing you can do is to practice your scales and arpeggios, and even passages, with different articulations and rhythms, which creates varying conditions before returning to the constant condition.
There are two hypotheses associated with using high CI. The elaboration hypothesis supports and suggests that higher CI can lead to clearer memory representations and paths of the different motor skills practiced as a result of different processing strategies (Wulf & Shea, 2002). On the flip side, the reconstruction hypothesis proposes that high CI can lead to a disruption and cause the forgetting of motor and action plans, thus discouraging it (Wulf & Shea, 2002). This suggests that the elaboration hypothesis would cognitively be demanding, but better in the long run. Practising a variety of material in a day would contribute to clearer mental representations of the different pieces and invoke better retention.
Physical Assistance
“Practice against the wall so you move less when you play.”
Physical assistance can consist of your coach/teacher using their hand to adjust the angle of your elbow or to get you to put your elbow weight into their hands, or the use of other equipment. This can help with reduce the motor demands associated with the complex skill (Wulf & Shea, 2002). One would need to begin with the explicit knowledge and internal intrinsic focus of recognizing how it feels, and then rely on implicit knowledge and continue with connecting with the internal intrinsic feedback to develop automaticity for the skill, without the physical assistance. For example, if there is a difficult passage, and your teacher realizes that you move too much, they might suggest that you practice against the wall. By practicing against the wall, this leverages the stability gained, and minimizes the motor and cognitive demands, since you do not have to think as much about the moving now.
This type of assistance should be used in moderation. There may be a dependence on your teacher’s help or the equipment (Wulf & Shea, 2002). Similar to observational learning, this does not replicate the exact conditions required in a real performance (Wulf & Shea, 2002).
Conclusion
Are you able to answer the following questions now having read this blog? Do you know what types of comments and feedback work best for you? Have you thought about how to optimize your lesson and coaching time, and what happens afterwards? Have you thought of how to break down all your movements when you learn a new work?
When you begin to learn a new piece or skill, your mentors’ guidance will be immensely helpful. It is important to be able to strike the balance between receiving frequent feedback, but also committing to long-term memory through internal and external foci. By understanding the different learning and focus types, this can help you be aware of what types of input you receive from your teacher, coaches, and colleagues. This can start conversations about what works best for you, and allow you to tailor your teaching to your own students.
References
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